Defining Documentary
A definition of documentary is not easy and can be the start of many arguments.
The Scottish documentarian John Grierson who first coined the term, 'documentary, in his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), also described 'Documentary' as "The creative interpretation of actuality". The Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov, set out to film "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
Grierson: "The creative interpretation of actuality"
Vertov: "life as it is", "life caught unawares"
Bill Nichol's identified these 6 modes of Documentary Representation.
Poetic
The poetic mode of documentary moves away from the "objective" reality of a given situation or people to grasp at an inner "truth" that can only be grasped by poetical manipulation Codes emphasizes visual associations, tonal or rhythmic qualities, descriptive passages, and formal organization favours mood, tone and texture.
Examples include:
Robert Flaherty's Man of Aran (1934) - dramatic framing of material presents mythic image of man in harmony with nature
Leni Riefenstahl's Olympia (1938) presents a glorified view of (Aryan) athletes during the 1936 Olympic Games - celebrating power and beauty of the (Aryan) human form + Triumph of the Will (1935)
Powaqqatsi (2003)
+ Baraka (1981) also
Expository
This mode is what we most identify with the documentary – it “emphasizes verbal commentary and argumentative logic” often using a narrator. Assumes a logical argument and a “right” and “proper” answer using direct address + offering preferred meaning.
Examples include: Work of John Grierson, many nature Documentaries
‘Nanook is an extraordinary film - the first ethnographic documentary that told the story of a people through the close observance of one man. It was filmed in 1920-21 in Port Harrison, Northern Quebec by Robert J. Flaherty, and told the story of a year in the life of an Itivimuit man, his family and their bleak life, fishing for survival and trading furs.’
’Nanook's real name was Allakariallak. Keen to play along with Flaherty's wish to represent the Inuit as living a simpler way of life, 'Nanook" was filmed hunting with a spear, despite the fact that in reality the tribe had long before abandoned spears in favour of guns.’
’Scenes apparently showing the inside of an igloo were staged, out of necessity as the lighting needed would have melted the walls. A cutaway igloo was used to accommodate lighting and cameras. Also, the two women who played 'Nanook's' wives were actually Flaherty's common-law wives - one wonders how 'Nanook' climbing out of bed with his two wives would have been viewed by the 1920s audience. And 'Nanook", described in the film as dying of starvation two years after filming, actually died at home of TB.’
Participatory
Unlike the observational mode, the participatory mode welcomes direct engagement between filmmaker and subject(s) - the filmmaker becomes part of the events being recorded The filmmakers impact on the events being recorded is acknowledged, indeed, it is often celebrated.
Examples include:
The films of Michael Moore - here the filmmaker directly engages with the material being address, he becomes a character in the documentary - an essential part of the subject Nick Broomfield's work, such as The Leader, His Driver and The Driver's Wife, Aileen: The Life and Death of a Serial Killer and Kurt and Courtney (1998).
Also see Louis Theroux’s films
Observational
Observational (objective) mode is best exemplified by the Cinema Verite or Direct Cinema movement which emerged in the late 1950s/early 1960s - it attempted to capture (as accurately as possibly) objective reality with filmmaker as neutral observer. See Fly on the Wall.
Codes/conventions: The filmmaker remains hidden behind the camera, ignored by the surrounding environment he/she neither changes nor influences the actions/events being captured. Since nothing is staged for the camera, the camera rushes about to keep up with the action resulting in rough, shaky, often amateur-looking footage.
Examples of the Cinema Verite/Direct cinema Movement:
Hoop Dreams (1994) - Director Steve James
Frederick Wiseman, Hospital (1970) – fly on the wall, American hospital
Richard Pennebacker's Don't Look Back (1967) - records Bob Dylan's 1965 tour of Britain Also Soho Stories (1996), Geri (1999)
Gunda: Mother Pig (2020) - Director Viktor Kosakovskiy
Hoop Dreams “This 3 hour epic shot over 5 years in Chicago follows the trials and tribulations of two talented and athletic black teens from poor families, trying to bust out of ghetto life and make it in the National Basketball League. Aside from the rich personal journey ensured by filming these young men throughout their formative years as they mature exponentially, the struggle of their families and the backdrops of their decaying neighbourhoods provides an incisive insight into underprivileged black urban existence.” No.2 - SBS Top ten observational documentaries.
Gunda (2020) by Victor Kossakovsky ‘provides a glimpse into the raw and simple power of nature through mesmerising encounters with farm animals, the eponymous Gunda, a mother pig, two ingenious cows and a scene-stealing, one-legged chicken.
Film-maker Victor Kossakovsky reminds us of the many lives that share this earth with humans and their value. From the first steps of piglets to the roaming joy of freed cows, Gunda: Mother, Pig draws a connection between human and animal, and the planet that we share with creatures great and small.’ (Watch now on BBC iPlayer)
In the clip below from IDFA Masterclass with Victor Kossakovsky, he uses his film Tishe! (2002) to illustrate Rule 6 of his rules for Documentary filmaking
Longer extract from film below.
Armadillo (2010) ‘A purist observational masterpiece, the story of some young Danish soldiers and their platoon deployed on a tour of Afghanistan, Armadillo is just pure riveting, cliffhanging, stunning live action from beginning frame to end – no voiceover, no narration, not even any interviews. Stunningly shot and dramatically scored, the film has actually been criticized for being ‘too cinematic’! There are sections where sync location sound drops away and all slow motion images play against evocative music to create sheer poetry in the chaos of the warzone – which might be a bit emotionally manipulative but at least you won’t hear any annoying talking! The best of showing rather than telling makes the meditation on war much more profound.’ No.1 - SBS Top ten observational documentaries.
Reflexive
The Reflexive Mode acknowledges the constructed nature of documentary and flaunts it - conveying to people that this is not necessarily "truth" but a reconstruction of it - "a" truth, not "the" truth
Codes/conventions: The artifice of the documentary is exposed - the audience are made aware of the editing, sound recording, etc.
Examples include:
Dziga Vertov's ‘Man with a Movie Camera’ (1929) - documents the mechanization of Soviet life in late twenties - the mechanical camera and cameraman become part of the subject. The art of making pictures is part of this "new" mechanical work and it to is part of the film - we literally at points in the film see the film being constructed.
A more recent example of a self reflexive film is Kirsten Johnson’s Cameraperson.
Which is made using shots from films she has worked on throughout her career as a camera person.
Another example is ‘The stories we tell’ (2013) by Sarah Polley, in which ‘Sarah revisits her love-tied mother, their knotty family and the dawning of women’s lib in this richly reflexive documentary.’ Read More (BFI)
Performative
This mode of documentary emphasizes the subjective nature of the documentarian as well as acknowledging the subjective reading of the audience - notions of objectivity are replaced by "evocation and affect"
Codes /conventions: This mode emphasizes the emotional and social impact on the audience. The performance of the documentary maker is central to the way the documentary is constructed.
The performative documentary emphasizes truth as relative, favoring a personal take over the objective lens. You can see the subjective poetics of autobiographical experience in the trailer for Marlon Riggs' Tongues Untied.
Other examples include: Supersize me Morgan Spurlock 2004. Arguably, films by Michael Moore
Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004). ‘This documentary features a blend of factual analysis with powerful emotion, where filmmaker Michael Moore constructs a narrative using outrage and horror to evoke a strong emotional response from his viewers. Moore often appears on-screen giving “man on the street” style interviews to subjects, crafting his own interpretation of how the war in Iraq unfolded and America’s response to it.’ - From Film 101: Understanding Performative Documentary Mode by Masterclass
Further Reading on Documentary Film
The following books and links are worth looking at for studying types of non-fiction documentary film and have been used in compiling these notes.
Nichols, B (2001). Introduction to Documentary. Bloomington & Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
Nichols, B (1991). Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documen- tary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press
Barnouw, E. (1993). A history of the non-fiction film, Oxford University Press
Bruzzi, S. (2000). New Documentary: A Critical Introduction. London, England: Routledge.
Bordwell, D. and Thompson, K. (2013). Film Art: An Introduction. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Glynne, A. (2008). Documentaries: And How To Make Them. Harpenden, Creative Essentials.
Also see:
http://www.theguardian.com/film/documentary
The Documentary Filmmakers Group website - http://thedfg.org/